Health effects of air pollution : a study of four major cities in Indonesia

Abstract

Since industrialization, air pollution has been substantially increasing in many urban centres, having adverse effects on human health. Studies have been conducted, mostly in industrialized countries, to reveal this critical ecological phenomenon. In developing countries, the same research is scanty. This present study, conducted in Indonesia, attempts to contribute to fill this gap. The study is primarily based on Ostro (1994), using the WHO Guidelines as the primary benchmark, along with the Indonesian Standards. This method applies to the latest data (2001-2002) for particulate matter (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and lead (Pb), after the improvement of the air quality management system (AQMS) in Indonesia. Jakarta is selected as the study focus, in comparison with three major cities of Java: Bandung, Semarang and Surabaya. Apart from Ostro, the work of Pengelly et al., (2000) is considered for method comparison. The third comparison examines the estimates found here with those of previous studies of Jakarta. While Ostro and Pengelly et al., concern themselves only with the health effects, this study extends its scope to estimate the costs of premature mortality and various morbidity outcomes using the human capital and costs of illness approaches, respectively. It is found that the estimated cases attributable both to PM10 and NO2 for Jakarta are more than double the cumulative estimates for the remaining cities. For comparison of the studies of Jakarta, the estimates of PM10 are lower than those found in the previous studies, except Ostro (1994). The cost estimation also shows similar results. Irrespective of the method used, the estimates for Jakarta are about 2.6-fold compared to the total of the other three cities. With respect to PM10 in Jakarta, the estimates, using the 2002-base price, are found to be higher than those of any previous study, with the morbidity effects being significant contributors. While NO2 does not provide any significant effect, the total costs of lead for 2001 are estimated to be higher than the previous results. No estimate is found for 2002. In conclusion, there had been an upward trend of air pollutants in Indonesia, especially in Jakarta, in the 1990s with first upward movement reaching so high a level that the Government took immediate measures such as establishing the integrated monitoring system along with other supportive programmes; concurrently, more serious law enforcement has been undertaken to correct the behaviour of the parties generating air contaminants. Following this, the national networking in monitoring air quality has contributed in improving the environment, at least, in Jakarta.